indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
state (US, Australia, India, Germany, etc.); province (e.g. Canada); continent; (arch.) dear
such things as ...; and ... and; the minute (that) ...; no sooner than ...; be; is; o
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
that; the; part (as in "part two"); um ...; er ...
et cetera; etc.; or something; the likes of; for example; for instance
insurrection; mutiny; rebellion; revolt; uprising
by means of; due to; because of; according to
year; counter for years (e.g. of an era), grades (e.g. school); period of an apprentice's contract (usu. ten years)
from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity); since; from (originator); by; because; since; out of (constituent, part)
to do; to carry out; to cause to become; to make (into); to serve as; to act as; to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
thing; object; one's things; possessions; things; something; quality
sum; harmony; peace; Japan; Japanese-style
Xianbei (ancient nomadic tribe of northern Asia)
indicates a question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm; huh; very
to become; to get; to result in; to turn out; to consist of; to be composed of; to be completed
to be (of animate objects); to exist; to stay; to be ...-ing; to have been ...-ing
to; for; in order to; for; as for; regarding
to go; to move (in a direction or towards a specific location); to proceed; to take place; to pass through; to come and go; to walk
but; however; (and) yet; nevertheless; still; for all that
district; county; district (of 2-20 50-home neighbourhoods or townships, in the ritsuryo period)
that; it; then; that point (in time); (arch.) there; (arch.) you
to think; to consider; to think (of doing); to plan (to do); to judge; to assess; to imagine
don't; do; hey; listen; now, ...; well, ...
called; named; as many as; as much as; all ...; every single ...
medium; average; moderation; middle school; China; volume two (of three); during (a certain time when one did or is doing something)
be; is; did; (have) done; please; do
nonexistent; not being (there); unowned; not had; unique; not; impossible
to finish; to stop; to close (a business, etc.); to close down; to put away; to put back
what; how many; many; a lot of; several; a few
as (i.e. in the role of); for (i.e. from the viewpoint of); apart from... (used to change the topic); even (e.g. "not even a single person"); thinking that...; trying to...
towards; against; regarding; in contrast with
light; illumination; ray; happiness; hope; influence
to raise; to raise up; to wake; to wake up; to cause; to bring about; to start
amount of money; sum of money
government service; the bureaucracy
counter for jewels in a watch; counter for transistors, diodes, etc. in an electronic product