indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
to do; to carry out; to cause to become; to make (into); to serve as; to act as; to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
to think; to consider; to think (of doing); to plan (to do); to judge; to assess; to imagine
and the like; such as; or something; something like; I hear that ...; people say that...
to make; to produce; to prepare (food); to brew (alcohol); to raise; to grow; to till
to write; to compose; to pen; to draw; to paint
darkness; the dark; bewilderment; despair; hidden place; secrecy
fashion; way; school (of thought); class; rank; current (electrical, water, etc.)
slip; omission; upshot; denouement; punch line (of a joke)
that being the case; because of ...; the reason is ...; given that ...
work (e.g. book, film, composition, etc.); opus; performance; production
indicates a question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm; huh; very
to be; to exist; to have; to be located; to be equipped with; to happen
this; last (couple of years, etc.); these; you (as in "you liar")
called; named; as many as; as much as; all ...; every single ...
talk; speech; topic; subject; discussions; negotiation; rumor
direction; way; side (of an argument, etc.); one's part; type; category; field (of study, etc.)
story; tale; narrative; account; fable; legend
previous work; preceding work; first crop grown in a double-cropped field; preceding crop
thing; matter; incident; occurrence; circumstances; situation; work
to become; to get; to result in; to turn out; to consist of; to be composed of; to be completed
to finish; to stop; to close (a business, etc.); to close down; to put away; to put back
but; however; (and) yet; nevertheless; still; for all that
to read; to recite (e.g. a sutra); to chant; to predict; to guess; to decipher; to count
to receive; to get; to eat; to drink; to be crowned with; to wear (on one's head)
firefly (Luciola cruciata); lightning bug; glowworm
to; for; in order to; for; as for; regarding
the expectation is that ...; the reason is that ...; the fact is that ...; the explanation is that ...; it is that ...
such things as ...; and ... and; the minute (that) ...; no sooner than ...; be; is; o
again; once more; also; too; on the other hand; while; and
this sort of; this kind of; like this; such
I wonder; should I?; is it?; I wish that; I hope that
concerning; regarding; per (e.g. 100 yen per person); for every
honorific/polite/humble prefix; honorific suffix
don't you think?; indicates question
thing; object; one's things; possessions; things; something; quality
interesting; fascinating; amusing; funny; enjoyable; fun
plans; arrangement; schedule; program; programme; expectation