indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
thing; matter; incident; occurrence; circumstances; situation; work
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
be; is; did; (have) done; please; do
to be; to exist; to have; to be located; to be equipped with; to happen
to become; to get; to result in; to turn out; to consist of; to be composed of; to be completed
to do; to carry out; to cause to become; to make (into); to serve as; to act as; to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity); since; from (originator); by; because; since; out of (constituent, part)
to come (spatially or temporally); to approach; to come back; to do ... and come back; to come to be; to become
this; last (couple of years, etc.); these; you (as in "you liar")
that; the; part (as in "part two"); um ...; er ...
indicates a question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm; huh; very
to; for; in order to; for; as for; regarding
to say; to utter; to name; to call; to go (e.g. "the alarm went ping"); to make a noise
called; named; as many as; as much as; all ...; every single ...
to think; to consider; to think (of doing); to plan (to do); to judge; to assess; to imagine
thing; object; one's things; possessions; things; something; quality
that; it; then; that point (in time); (arch.) there; (arch.) you
honorific/polite/humble prefix
honorific/polite/humble prefix; honorific suffix
nonexistent; not being (there); unowned; not had; unique; not; impossible
to see; to look; to examine; to look over; to look after; to attend to; to experience
this; this one; this person; now; this point (in time); here; used to stress the subject of a sentence
mountain; hill; mine (e.g. coal mine); heap; pile; crown (of a hat); thread (of a screw)
to go; to move (in a direction or towards a specific location); to proceed; to take place; to pass through; to come and go; to walk
to leave; to exit; to leave (on a journey); to depart; to move forward; to come to; to get to
to be (of animate objects); to exist; to stay; to be ...-ing; to have been ...-ing
Echigo (former province located in present-day Niigata Prefecture)
time; hour; occasion; case; chance; opportunity
above; up; top; summit; surface; before; previous
will; probably; may; I think; surely; I hope
again; once more; also; too; on the other hand; while; and
direction; way; side (of an argument, etc.); one's part; type; category; field (of study, etc.)
to say; to be called; to do
until (a time); till; to (a place or person); as far as; to (an extent); up to
only; just; merely; as much as; to the extent of; enough to
that being the case; because of ...; the reason is ...; given that ...