indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
nobility; aristocracy; peerage
if; when; and; as well as; with; together with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.)
citizen (of a country); citizenry; citizen (of a city); resident; bourgeoisie; middle class
indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; indicates a confident conclusion; indicates emotional emphasis; indicates question
pluralizing suffix (esp. for people and animals; formerly honorific)
by means of; due to; because of; according to
composition; construction; formation; makeup; structure; organization
called; named; as many as; as much as; all ...; every single ...
governing institution; governing institutions; organ of government
management; administration; operation
indicates the subject of a sentence; indicates possession; but; however; and; used after an introductory remark or explanation; regardless of ...
to perform; to do; to conduct oneself; to carry out
country; state; region; national government; central government; home (i.e. hometown, home country); province (of Japan)
country; territory; domain; realm
area (measurement); square measure; size (of land); floor space
double; twice (as much); times (as much); -fold; 1-nth; 1 to n
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
easily (reach, exceed, etc.); comfortably; amply; fully; well over
to cross over; to cross; to pass through; to exceed; to surpass; to be more (than)
to descend (e.g. a mountain); to go down; to alight (e.g. from bus); to get off; to step down; to retire; to be granted
at; in; to; toward; to; for; because of
to arrive at (e.g. a decision); to reach (a stage); to lead to (a place); to get to; in the extreme case of; (arch.) to come
to reach; to touch; to be delivered; to arrive; to be attentive; to be scrupulous
indicates a question; indicates an embedded question; indicates an indirect question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm
extent; degree; limit; bounds; (span of) time; (a) distance; the state of
super-; ultra-; extremely; really; of course; definitely
guidance; leadership; instruction; shido (minor penalty in judo)
under (guidance, supervision, rules, the law, etc.); under (a flag, the sun, etc.); beneath; with (e.g. one blow); on (the promise, condition, assumption, etc. that ...); (someone's) side
many; numerous; various; large number of
smallness; small item; short month (i.e. having fewer than 31 days); urine; piss; elementary school; smaller (of two things, places, etc. with the same name)
such things as ...; and ... and; the minute (that) ...; no sooner than ...; be; is; o
merger; joining into one; amalgamation; melding; merging; annexation
here; this place; this point; here; these past ... (e.g. three years); these last ...
until (a time); till; to (a place or person); as far as; to (an extent); up to
growth; development; growing up; growth (of a company, the economy, etc.)
to come (spatially or temporally); to approach; to come back; to do ... and come back; to come to be; to become