indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
materials; data; document
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
to turn over; to turn pages of a book; to tear off; to strip off; to tear up
hand; arm; forepaw; foreleg; handle; hand; worker
to stop; to turn off; to park; to prevent; to suppress (a cough); to stop (someone from doing something); to dissuade
Mr.; Mrs.; Miss; politeness marker
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
language; dialect; word; phrase; speech; (manner of) speaking
parroting back; repeating (something one was told) like a parrot
to do; to carry out; to cause to become; to make (into); to serve as; to act as; to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
to hear; to listen (e.g. to music); to ask; to enquire; to hear about; to hear of; to follow (advice, order, etc.)
intimacy; friendship; familiarity
nonexistent; not being (there); unowned; not had; unique; not; impossible
country; state; region; national government; central government; home (i.e. hometown, home country); (arch.) province (of Japan)
so; therefore; accordingly; like I said; I told you already
indicates a question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm; huh; very
wonderful; marvelous; strange; strangely enough; oddly enough; for some reason
appearing that; seeming that; looking like; having the appearance of
face; visage; look; expression; honor; honour
yes; that is correct; understood; I see; present; here; pardon?
continent; continental Asia (esp. mainland China); continental Europe
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
to be; to exist; to have; to be located; to be equipped with; to happen
thing; matter; incident; occurrence; circumstances; situation; work
indicates emotion or admiration; indicates emphasis; I; me; wah!; boo!
recently; lately; these days; nearest; closest
until (a time); till; to (a place or person); as far as; to (an extent); up to
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
nonexistent; not being (there); unowned; not had; unique; not; impossible
so; therefore; accordingly; consequently; on those grounds; that is why
right?; isn't it?; hey; say; you know; you see; will you?
necessities of life (food, clothing and shelter)
which (of three or more); well; now; c'mon
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
original; unique; distinctive; independent; one's own; personal
culture; civilization; civilisation; Bunka era (1804.2.11-1818.4.22)
to build up; to establish (one's reputation)
fingers; fingertips; underling; stooge; tool