indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
to face; to go towards; to head towards
free city (of Germany); commune (of medieval Europe)
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
race; tribe; species; genus; stellar population (i.e. population I, II and III)
distinction; differentiation; discrimination; discrimination (against people)
nonexistent; not being (there); unowned; not had; unique; not; impossible
self-government; autonomy; local (governmental) autonomy
country; state; region; national government; central government; home (i.e. hometown, home country); (arch.) province (of Japan)
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
year; counter for years (e.g. of an era), grades (e.g. school); period of an apprentice's contract (usu. ten years)
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
once; one time; temporarily; for a moment; one degree; one tone
one by one; each; every; at intervals of
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
election; selection; choice
there (place relatively near listener); there (place just mentioned); that place; then (of some incident just spoken of); that (of point just raised); (arch.) you
from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity); since; from (originator); by; because; since; out of (constituent, part)
again; once more; also; too; on the other hand; while; and
indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
to decide; to choose; to clinch (a victory); to decide (the outcome of a match); to persist in doing; to go through with; to always do
management; administration; operation
democratic nation; democratic country
be; is; did; (have) done; please; do
in case of; at that time; at this time
Mr.; Mrs.; makes a word more polite (usu. in fixed expressions); state; situation
as (i.e. in the role of); for (i.e. from the viewpoint of); apart from... (used to change the topic); even (e.g. "not even a single person"); thinking that...; trying to...
Mr.; Mrs.; Miss; politeness marker
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
that; the; part (as in "part two"); um ...; er ...
intention; plan; belief; assumption; estimate; estimation
to be (of animate objects); to exist; to stay; to be ...-ing; to have been ...-ing
to give; to let (one) have; to give; to do for one; to take the trouble to do; to do to someone's disadvantage
endorsing and questioning the preceding statement; lamenting reflections on the preceding statement
to cherish; to treasure; to prize; to take good care of; to look after
to raise; to elevate; to do up (one's hair); to fly (a kite, etc.); to launch (fireworks, etc.); to land (a boat); to deep-fry
please (give me); please (do for me)
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
to deliver; to extradite; to stretch across; to hand over