indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
space (between); gap; period of time (during, while); duration; between (two parties or things); among (a group); relations (between)
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
to aim at (for, to do, to become); to try for; to have an eye on; to go toward; to head for
middle part; medium depth (water); medium layer; medium-size; mid-level; medium-rise (building)
from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity); since; from (originator); by; because; since; out of (constituent, part)
to begin; to start; to happen (again); to begin (anew); to date (from); to originate (in)
considerably; fairly; quite
upper stratum (classes, stories, storeys); upper layer; layer above
direction; way; side (of an argument, etc.); one's part; type; category; field (of study, etc.)
until (a time); till; to (a place or person); as far as; to (an extent); up to
to come (spatially or temporally); to approach; to come back; to do ... and come back; to come to be; to become
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
at present; currently; so far; for now; for the time being
opponent; rival; adversary; menace; danger; threat
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
encounter; being confronted with (e.g. difficulty); meeting with (e.g. accident)
to do; to carry out; to cause to become; to make (into); to serve as; to act as; to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
lower layer; layer beneath; lower strata (classes)
gaining total control (of people or counties); suppression; oppression; control; mastery; ascendancy
although; despite; whereas; while; if only; I wish
busy; occupied; hectic; restless; hurried; fidgety
yes; yeah; huh?; what?; not; 's
seems; I think; I guess; don't you agree?; I thought you'd say that!
pluralizing suffix (esp. for people and animals; formerly honorific)
all members; all hands; everyone; everybody; whole crew
indication; denotation; designation; instructions; directions
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
to obey (an order, law, etc.); to abide by (a rule, custom, etc.); to follow (a person); to accompany; to go alongside (e.g. a river); to follow (e.g. a sign)
it does not mean that ...; I don't mean that ...; it is not the case that...
and; besides; because; since; the thing is; for one thing
samurai on horseback; (medieval) knight
after all; because; but; even; too; as well
to be (of animate objects); to exist; to stay; to be ...-ing; to have been ...-ing
several; a number of; quantity; amount; counting; figures; number
it is ... that ...; precisely; although; while; it is precisely because ... that ...; only because ...
than; from; out of; except; but; more
few; a little; scarce; insufficient; seldom
each (person); individually; one by one; one at a time; in turn