indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; indicates a confident conclusion; indicates emotional emphasis; indicates question
above; over; top; summit; surface; on (top of); the above (in a piece of writing)
at; in; to; toward; to; for; because of
spring; springtime; New Year; prime (of life); height (of one's prosperity); adolescence
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
to stand (up); to rise; to stand (in a position; of a person, tree, building, etc.); to be situated (in, on); to be (in difficulties, the lead, etc.); to put oneself (in a position or situation); to leave (to do something)
while; during; while; although; all; both
severe; strict; hard (to do); difficult; intense (e.g. cold); harsh (weather)
cold (e.g. weather); uninteresting (esp. joke); lame; dull
indicates the subject of a sentence; indicates possession; but; however; and; used after an introductory remark or explanation; regardless of ...
to continue; to last; to continue (without a break); to be unbroken; to occur again and again; to lead to; to connect to
to be (animate); to be; to be ...-ing; to have ...-ed; to be ...-ed; to (have the audacity to) do
main text; original text; this book; this volume
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
to take in one's hand; to pick up; to obtain
is it?; isn't it?; be; is
how are things with you?; how are you doing?; how are you getting along?; how have you been?; how are you?
remains; traces; (the sorrow of) parting; end
very; considerably; by no means; not readily; middle; half-way point
to leave; to go away; to pass; to elapse; to be distant; to send away; to drive off
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
protection against the cold
to; for; in order to; for; as for; regarding
to worry (about); to fuss (over); to be careful (about); to pay attention (to); to take (good) care of
often; again and again; frequently; repeatedly
late at night; small hours of the morning
until (a time); till; to (a place or person); as far as; to (an extent); up to
to finish; to stop; to close (a business, etc.); to close down; to put away; to put back
thing; matter; incident; occurrence; circumstances; situation; work
existing (at the present moment); alright; acceptable; to be (usu. of inanimate objects); to have
to fall ill; to become indisposed; to have one's physical condition deteriorate
how many times; how many degrees (temperature, angle, etc.)
indicates a question; indicates an embedded question; indicates an indirect question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm
to be; to come; to go; to be (doing)
please; if you would; somehow or other; one way or another; whether (or not); if
at; in; at; when; by; with; so
to be (of animate objects); to exist; to stay; to be ...-ing; to have ...-ed; to be ...-ed
appearing ...; looking ...; way to ...; method of ...ing; form; style
to read; to recite (e.g. a sutra); to chant; to predict; to guess; to pronounce; to read (e.g. a kanji)
slowly; unhurriedly; easily (e.g. in time); well; well (e.g. sleep); comfortably
if; when; and; as well as; with; together with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.)