indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
thing; matter; incident; occurrence; circumstances; situation; work
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
indicates a question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm; huh; very
yes; yeah; huh?; what?; not; 's
splendid horse; promoted bishop
black ships; Western ships that came to Japan between the 16th and 19th centuries, esp. those of the Perry Expedition in 1853; foreign disruptor (of the Japanese market); product, person, etc. arriving from the West and disturbing the Japanese market
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
to do; to carry out; to cause to become; to make (into); to serve as; to act as; to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
here; this place; this point; here; these past ... (e.g. three years); these last ...
(United States of) America; United States; US; America (land mass); the Americas
to see; to look; to examine; to look over; to look after; to attend to; to experience
Mr.; Mrs.; Miss; politeness marker
to come (spatially or temporally); to approach; to come back; to do ... and come back; to come to be; to become
what; you-know-what; that thing; whatsit; whachamacallit; (not) at all; (not) in the slightest
from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity); since; from (originator); by; because; since; out of (constituent, part)
to; for; in order to; for; as for; regarding
to be (animate); to be; to be ..ing; to (have the audacity to) do
ah!; oh!; yes; indeed; aah; gah
to become; to get; to result in; to turn out; to consist of; to be composed of; to be completed
katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum); Japanese Judas tree
(arch.) indicates emphasis, intention, etc.; indicates emphasis, intention, etc.
Perry; Peli; Pelly; Perri
to be; to exist; to have; to be located; to be equipped with; to happen
how; in what way; how about
what; how many; many; a lot of; several; a few
war; battle; campaign; (arch.) troops; (arch.) forces
Edo (shogunate capital, now Tokyo); Yedo
this; last (couple of years, etc.); these; you (as in "you liar")
this; this one; this person; now; this point (in time); here; used to stress the subject of a sentence
to be aware of; to know; to notice; to feel; to understand; to comprehend; to remember
to understand; to comprehend; to become clear; to be known; I know!; I think so too!
honorific/polite/humble prefix
adds force or indicates command
medium; average; moderation; middle school; China; volume two (of three); during (a certain time when one did or is doing something)
you; presence (of a god, nobleman, etc.)
wrong; not good; hopeless; past hope; must not do