indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
now; the present time; just now; another; more
particularly; especially; in particular; expressly
civilization; civilisation; culture; Bunmei era (1469.4.28-1487.7.20)
criticism; critique; review; commentary
again; once more; also; too; on the other hand; while; and
culture; civilization; civilisation; Bunka era (1804.2.11-1818.4.22)
criticism; judgement; judgment; comment
indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
position; situation; viewpoint; standpoint; point of view
from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity); since; from (originator); by; because; since; out of (constituent, part)
technology; engineering; technique; skill; art; craft
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
to name; to call; to christen; to term
this; this one; this person; now; this point (in time); here; used to stress the subject of a sentence
and; and then; thus; and now; and finally
here; this place; this point; here; these past ... (e.g. three years); these last ...
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
relation; relationship; participation; involvement; influence; effect
to handle; to operate (a machine, etc.); to deal with (an issue); to manage; to treat (someone); to deal with (someone)
to think; to consider; to think (of doing); to plan (to do); to judge; to assess; to imagine
this; last (couple of years, etc.); these; you (as in "you liar")
question (e.g. on a test); problem; problem (e.g. societal, political); question; question (i.e. doubt); public discussion
concerning; regarding; per (e.g. 100 yen per person); for every
still; much more; (not) yet; still a long way to go; still a long way off; not there yet
to write; to compose; to pen; to draw; to paint
(for something) to have occurred; to have done (something); (for something) to happen on occasion
intention; plan; belief; assumption; estimate; estimation
to think (about, of); to think over; to consider; to bear in mind; to think (that); to believe; to intend (to do)
censorship; inspection; examination
to offer; to sacrifice; to dedicate
good; advantage; sake; purpose; consequence; result
accurate; correct; precise; exact
to say; to utter; to declare; to name; to call
to represent; to signify; to reveal; to show; to express; to make widely known
dot; spot; mark (in an exam, etc.); grade; point (in a game); score; point (in geometry)
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
to be; to exist; to have; to be located; to be equipped with; to happen