indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
be; is; did; (have) done; please; do
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
indicates a question; or; whether or not; some- (e.g. something, someone); hmm; huh; very
don't; do; hey; listen; now, ...; well, ...
to see; to look; to examine; to look over; to look after; to attend to; to experience
leader; reader; reading book; reader (i.e. someone who reads); microreader; dotted line (in printing)
at; in; at; when; by; with; and then
hey; you; hey; hey; hold on; yo
to do; to carry out; to cause to become; to make (into); to serve as; to act as; to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
you said; he said; if ... then; do you seriously think that; I already told you; you should know by now that; the said ...
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
this; last (couple of years, etc.); these; you (as in "you liar")
to say; to utter; to name; to call; to go (e.g. "the alarm went ping"); to make a noise
the expectation is that ...; the reason is that ...; the fact is that ...; the explanation is that ...; it is that ...
to do; to undertake; to send; to dispatch; to put; to move; to give (esp. to someone of equal or lower status)
yes; yeah; hum; hmmm; oof
endorsing and questioning the preceding statement; lamenting reflections on the preceding statement
pluralizing suffix (esp. for people and animals; formerly honorific)
to take out; to get out; to put out; to reveal; to submit (e.g. thesis); to turn in; to publish
seems; I think; I guess; don't you agree?; I thought you'd say that!
yes; yeah; huh?; what?; not; 's
adds force or indicates command
to be (of animate objects); to exist; to stay; to be ...-ing; to have been ...-ing
in that way; thus; so; so?
here; this place; this point; here; these past ... (e.g. three years); these last ...
what; you-know-what; that thing; whatsit; whachamacallit; (not) at all; (not) in the slightest
man; male; fellow; guy; male lover; boyfriend
ah!; oh!; yes; indeed; aah; gah
nonexistent; not being (there); not having; not
what!; oh; what the heck; what the; damn
that; it; then; that point (in time); (arch.) there; (arch.) you
to begin; to start; to happen (again); to begin (anew); to date (from); to originate (in)
to understand; to comprehend; to become clear; to be known; I know!; I think so too!
shade; shadow; behind (something); other side; background; behind the scenes
good; excellent; sufficient; enough; profitable (deal, business offer, etc.); beneficial