indicates sentence topic; indicates contrast with another option (stated or unstated); adds emphasis
remote past; far ago; time immemorial
from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity); since; from (originator); by; because; since; out of (constituent, part)
you (plural); all of you; you all
indicates direct object of action; indicates subject of causative expression; indicates an area traversed; indicates time (period) over which action takes place; indicates point of departure or separation of action; indicates object of desire, like, hate, etc.
monitoring; watching; observation; surveillance; guarding; supervision
to come (spatially or temporally); to approach; to come back; to do ... and come back; to come to be; to become
indicates sentence subject (occasionally object); indicates possessive (esp. in literary expressions); but; however; regardless of; whether (or not)
to appear; to come in sight; to become visible; to be expressed (e.g. emotions); to become apparent (e.g. trends, effects)
than; from; out of; except; but; more
ago; since; before; previous
that; the; part (as in "part two"); um ...; er ...
civilization; civilisation; culture; Bunmei era (1469.4.28-1487.7.20)
indicates possessive; nominalizes verbs and adjectives; substitutes for "ga" in subordinate phrases; (at sentence-end, falling tone) indicates a confident conclusion; (at sentence-end) indicates emotional emphasis; (at sentence-end, rising tone) indicates question
dawn; daybreak; beginning
at (place, time); in; to (direction, state); toward; for (purpose); because of (reason); for
until (a time); till; to (a place or person); as far as; to (an extent); up to
to go upstream; to go back (in time, to origin); to date back to; to trace back to
I; me; oneself; (arch.) you; (arch.) prefix indicating familiarity or contempt
unbroken; uninterrupted; on and on; continuous
if; when; and; with; used for quoting (thoughts, speech, etc.); promoted pawn; indicates a question
to continue; to keep up; to keep on
that; it; then; that point (in time); (arch.) there; (arch.) you
extent; degree; limit; bounds; (span of) time; (a) distance; the state of
very interesting; of great interest
observation; survey; watching
target; object (of worship, study, etc.); subject (of taxation, etc.)
be; is; did; (have) done; please; do
concerning; regarding; per (e.g. 100 yen per person); for every
to be aware of; to know; to notice; to feel; to understand; to comprehend; to remember
many; much; majority (of); greater part (of); mostly; mainly
essence; true nature; substance; reality
in; on; at (place); as for; regarding
thing; matter; incident; occurrence; circumstances; situation; work
too; also; both A and B; A as well as B; even; as much as
intention; wish; purpose; mind (to do)
to call out (to); to call; to summon (a doctor, etc.); to invite; to designate; to name; to garner (support, etc.)
independence; self-reliance